Stuff Jos van der Woude cares about - History

The incredible but true story of the Gemma Constantiniana

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Wed, 06 May 2015 12:58:00 +0000

Introduction

May 4th, 2015 we visited the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden on a whim, because we read the museum would be closed for renovations, at least for the rest of the year. The Egyptian department is my favorite, so we went there first. But on the upper floor my eye caught something else. I took a photo of this strange piece of jewelry, and once back home, I researched it. Read on to find out what I discovered about this fascinating piece of jewelry...

The Gemma Constantiniana is one of the greatest cameos from classical antiquity. It was made in honour of Constantine’s victory over his rival Maxentius in AD 312. It is a large agate of two layers of grey and brown (21.1 × 29.7 cm) and shows an Emperor and his family on a chariot drawn by two centaurs trampling on fallen enemies, while a flying Victory holds a wreath. Both the style and the scene depicted point to the fourth century: Constantine the Great is pictured with his spouse Fausta, his son Crispus and his mother Helena. Comparison with Constantinian coins and a close scrutiny of the scene portrayed lead to the conclusion that this work of art was produced in the years 312—315 and served as a present on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the Emperor's accession, in 315. Thus it is the aristocratic counterpart of Constantine's popular triumphal arch. The guilded frame with gems was added in the 17th century in Antwerp.

It is possible to trace at least part of the long way the cameo travelled from the Emperor's treasure house in Rome to the Rijksmueum Oudheden in Leiden, The Netherlands, mostly thanks to meticulous recordkeeping of the Dutch East India Company.

Time line of events

Date	Place	Events
315	Rome	Cameo made in honour of Constantine’s victory over his rival Maxentius in AD 312. It served as a present on the occasion of the tenth anniversary of the Emperor's accession, in 315
330?	Constantinople	Roman capital transferred from Rome to Constantinople, cameo probably taken there.
1204	Constantinople	4th Crusade, sack of Constantinople. Cameo taken to France?
1204-1622	France?	Unknown, probably in a monastery or church in France
1622	Antwerp	Cameo in possession of Peter-Paul Rubens, great Baroque painter and collector of ancient cameos
1628	Antwerp	Frame with gems added by Theodoor Rogiersz in Antwerp.
1628, Oct	Amsterdam	Taken to Gaspar Boudaen in Amsterdam to be sold to the Great Mogul of India.
1628, Oct 28	Texel	The Batavia under command of Francisco Pelsaert leaves Texel with the Great cameo as its most valuable item.
1629, Jun 4	Abrolhos Islands, off the coast of Western Austalia	At about 5 a.m. on 4 June 1629 the Dutch ship the Batavia, belonging to the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie - VOC), on its way to Java with 316 people on board, struck Morning Reef in the Wallabi Group of the Abrolhos Islands, about sixty kilometres off the central west coast of Western Australia.
1629, Jun 4 – Sep 17	Abrolhos Islands, off the coast of Western Austalia	Cameo in possession of the mutineers of the infamous Batavia Mutiny. In the absence of captain Pelsaert the mutineers, led by Jeronimus Cornelisz, callously murdered about 110 men, women and children, in many cases with horrific savagery and cruelty. Cornelisz never committed any of the murders himself, although he tried and failed to poison a baby (who was eventually strangled). Instead, he used his powers of persuasion to coerce others into doing it for him, firstly under the pretense that the victim had committed a crime such as theft. Eventually, the mutineers began to kill for pleasure, or simply because they were bored. He planned to reduce the island's population to around 45 so that their supplies would last as long as possible. Although Cornelisz had left the soldiers, led by Wiebbe Hayes, to die, they had in fact found good sources of water and food on their islands. Initially, they were unaware of the barbarity taking place on the other islands and sent pre-arranged smoke signals announcing their finds. However, they soon learned of the massacres from survivors fleeing Cornelisz' island. In response, the soldiers devised makeshift weapons from materials washed up from the wreck. They also set a watch so that they were ready for the mutineers, and built a small fort out of limestone and coral blocks. Cornelisz seized on the news of water on the other island, as his own supply was dwindling and the continued survival of the soldiers threatened his own success. He went with his men to try to defeat the soldiers marooned on West Wallabi Island. However, the trained soldiers were by now much better fed than the mutineers and easily defeated them in several battles, eventually taking Cornelisz hostage. The mutineers who escaped regrouped under a man named Wouter Loos and tried again, this time employing muskets to besiege Hayes' fort and almost defeated the soldiers. But Wiebbe Hayes' men prevailed again, just as Pelsaert arrived in the rescue ship the Saardam. A race to the rescue ship ensued between Cornelisz's men and the soldiers. Wiebbe Hayes reached the ship first and was able to present his side of the story to Pelsaert. After a short battle, the combined force captured all of the mutineers.
1629, Oct 2	Abrolhos Islands, off the coast of Western Austalia	Cameo retrieved from mutineers. Pelsaert decided to conduct a trial on the islands, because the Saardam on the return voyage to Batavia would have been overcrowded with survivors and prisoners. After a brief trial, the worst offenders were taken to Seal Island and executed. Cornelisz and several of the major mutineers had both hands chopped off before being hanged on October 2. Wouter Loos and Jan Pelgrom de Bye, were considered only minor offenders and were abandoned on the Western Australian coast, probably at the mouth of Hutt River, about 450 kilometres north of where Perth now stands. They were provided with a boat, food, toys and trinkets to trade, and a set of instructions. Thus they became the first Europeans to take up residence in Australia, and their instructions directed them to “make themselves known to the folk of this land.” Reports of unusually light-skinned Aborigines in the area by later British settlers have been suggested as evidence that the two men might have been adopted into a local Aboriginal clan. Some amongst the Amangu people of the mainland have a blood group specific to Leyden, in Holland. However, numerous other European shipwreck survivors, such as those from the wreck of the Zuytdorp in the same region in 1712, may also have had such contact with indigenous inhabitants.
1629, Dec	Batavia (Jakarta)	The remaining mutineers were taken to Batavia for trial. Five were hanged, while several others were flogged. Cornelisz's second in command, Jacop Pietersz, was broken on the wheel, the most severe punishment available at the time. A board of inquiry decided that Pelsaert had exercised a lack of authority and was therefore partly responsible for what had happened. His financial assets were seized, and he died a broken man within a year. On the other hand, the common soldier Wiebbe Hayes was hailed as a hero. The Dutch East India Company promoted him to sergeant, and later to lieutenant, which increased his salary fivefold. Of the original 341 people on board the Batavia, only 68 made it to the port of Batavia.
1632	Suratte, India	Cameo taken aboard the warship Amboina to Suratte, India for sale to governor Mirmousa. No deal.
1633	Batavia	Cameo returns to Batavia onboard the warship ‘s-Hertogenbosch.
1634, Aug	Batavia	Cameo stays in Batavia; drawings are sent to Hindoustan and Persia in order to sell it. No deal.
1636?	Gamron, Persia	Cameo sent to Gamron in Persia. No deal.
1637, Jun	Batavia	Cameo returns to Batavia.
1637, Dec	Achin, Sumatra	Bad weather forces premature return to Batavia.
1638, Feb 24	Achin, Sumatra	King of Atjeh refuses to buy the cameo.
1640	Suratte, India	Cameo taken aboard the warship Nieuw-Zeeland to Suratte, India for sale to governor Mirmousa. No deal.
1641, Apr	Batavia	Cameo returns to Batavia aboard the warship Nieuw-Zeeland.
1641 - 1647	Batavia	Cameo in store
1647	Suratte, India	Gaspar Boudaen's son comes out to the East Indies and takes it to Suratte, but he, too, fails to sell it.
1653-1656	The Netherlands	Cameo returns to the heirs of Gaspar Boudaen in the Netherlands
1656-1756	The Netherlands	Unknown
1756, Sep 11	Amsterdam, de Munt	Cameo is auctioned for fl 5500 at the Munt in Amsterdam, probably to Jacob Hop.
1783, Oct 1	Amsterdam, de Munt	Cameo is up for auction at the Munt in Amsterdam by the heirs of Jacob Hop (Pabst). No deal.
1808	Paris	Cameo is taken to Paris and a detailed drawing is made by Lacour. Cameo is almost sold to Napoleon for ff 110.000. Events in 1813 preclude a deal.
1823	Leiden	King Willem I buys the cameo for fl 50.000 from Jacob Hop’s grandson. Cameo is taken to the Royal Coin Cabinet in Leiden.
2007, May 24	Utrecht	Cameo is transferred to the Money museum in Utrecht
2014, Jan 15	Leiden	Cameo is transferred to the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden

Sources

A. N. ZADOKS, JOSEPHUS JITTA and A. van der Gracht, Oud Holland Jaarg. 66, (1951), pp. 191-211 De Lotgevallen van den Grooten Camee in het Koninklijk Penningkabinet

Rupert Gerritsen, Austalia's First Criminal Prosecutions in 1629, 2011

The Moors in Andalusia

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Tue, 08 May 2012 16:18:24 +0000

During the first week of May 2012, Chris and I were in Andalusia, Spain. We visited Malaga, Cordoba, Granada and a few smaller towns. For a long time I have wanted to see the Mezquita Mosque/Cathedral in Cordoba and the Alhambra in Grenada.

This is the roof of the Mezquita Mosque in Cordoba.

I was not disappointed; they were both stunning. Right there at the top of the list of most beautiful and impressive cultural sites I have ever seen. On reflection. I find the Mezquita most impressive, its construction being started in 781 AD and the Alhambra the more beautiful and younger (1100 AD) of the two.

I have read a lot about the Islamic rule in Spain which lasted from 711 AD till 1492 AD, the very same year Columbus set sail from Andalusia to discover what was later called America. For 781 years the Moors ruled over varying parts of the Iberian peninsula. Indeed, were it not for a legendary battle in the middle of modern France, the Battle of Tours/Poirtiers in 732 AD in which Charles Martel (grandfather of Charlemagne) defeated the Moors, modern Europe could have easily been Islamic instead of Christian.

How come, the Moors were able to conquer the Christian kingdoms so quickly? Well, part of the story is that they had the stirrup. This made possible the concept of heavy cavalry. A fully armoured ‘knight’ could wield a heavy sword or lance while bracing himself using the stirrup. European countries had no such heavy cavalry. It was the sheer military genius of Charles Martel which allowed an army of foot soldiers to beat the heavy cavalry of the Moors (plus a little luck and the element of surprise). They were no ordinary foot soldiers by the way, it was the first full time year-round professional army in Europe and they were very good at the tactic of "Holding the Line". It won them the battle. It is said that Charles himself studied the stirrups after the battle and quickly adopted them for use in his own army. Next time, I am in Paris, France, I will want to visit the tomb of Charles Martel in the Saint Denis Basilica and contemplate the words of the historian Edward Gibbon: “Christendom ... delivered ... by the genius and good fortune of one man, Charles Martel.”

Was Islamic rule in Spain a bad thing in it self? It seems this is a matter of perspective. Obviously this issue is likely to hit a nerve because of the current animosity between Christianity and Islam.

For one thing it is not simply a matter of the Moors conquering Christian lands and oppressing the righteous and faithful. The Moors were invited by some wealthy Christian Visigoth overlords to help settle a land dispute; all 7,000 of them. Some of the locals saw them as liberators and converted to Islam willingly. In the course of over 700 years a lot of native Spaniards converted willingly to Islam. This is a little fact often overlooked in history. This made the Reconquista more of an ugly civil war than anything else. In modern terms, think of Northern Ireland and you will get the picture.

The Moors in Andalusia spent more of their wealth on culture and architecture than defense. When they were cornered by the Christian armies they called for help from their Moroccan Berber friends: The Almohads. Now these were a different people. In today's terms we would call them Islamic Fundamentalists. The Almohads were appalled by what they saw in Spain. The Moors of Andalusia had clearly strayed off the path in their view by absorbing Christian values into their Moorish culture. A disgrace! A lot of the destruction of Cultural artifacts in Andalusia was done on orders of the Almohads. The more popular view of barbarous Moors occupying Spain thus really better suits the Almohads than the Moors as such. Al the more an excuse for the Christians to kick the Moors out. And that they did. The job was finally and conclusively done in 1492. For a hundred years or so after that, laws were passed to protect the Muslim and Jewish population. Until in the 16th century the Spanish Crown, busy fighting wars all over the known world, decided it could no longer afford a large minority Muslim population right in their own heartland. In an unprecedented act of ethnic cleansing all the native Spaniards adhering to the Muslim faith were forcibly removed from Spain. That or killed.

Depending on were you look you will find very different versions of this tragic story.

The British Channel 4 documentary “When the Moors Ruled in Europe,” by Bettany Hughes basically argues the point that Christian Europe was inferior in all the aspects in which the Moors were excelling. The Moors had a high regard for learning, even the common people were encouraged to become literate and study. The Moors had irrigation, sewer systems, water closets and a successful agriculture. Their cities were pleasingly laid out, with harmoniously proportioned buildings and exotic and fragrant fruit trees to delight the senses. They even brought hairspray and deodorant to Spain.

The Partal(garden) at the Alhambra in Grenada.

Bettany Hughes shows us their leadership in translating and keeping alive the Greek and Roman classics, science, medicine, marine navigation, and astronomy, and reminds us that many words in our vocabulary approach from the Arabic. She touches upon the fact that they welcomed Jews, and their knowledge. Most indispensable of all, she reminds us that we currently use Arabic numerals, and that the substantial leaps forward in bookkeeping that underlay the businesses that bankrolled the famous Renaissance of the 16th century, could never have occurred if clerks were still struggling with those clumsy Roman numerals. Nor, of course, could Europe have rediscovered the Roman and Greek classics, another major ingredient of the Renaissance, had the Moors not preserved them.

The extreme other point of view can be read at a conservative blog in the USA commenting on a conference held at the Virginia Military Institute in 2011 called “East meets West.” and commemorating the Moorish invasion of Spain. www.theblogmocracy.com/2011/02/06/bigotry-on-display-at-vmi/
Reza Aslan is scheduled to speak on a panel entitled “‘Al-Andalus’ – an ageless Model of Tolerance“, but it is doubtful that Aslan and his co-panelists will be discussing the widespread persecution of Christians and Jews under Muslim rule that led to the establishment of an entirely new class of Roman Catholic martyrs, “the Cordoba martyrs“, or the 1066 massacre of Jews and crucifixion their leader Joseph ha-Nagid in “tolerant” Cordoba. The great Jewish scholar Maimonides and his family fled “tolerant” Cordoba after the Muslim conquest of the city in 1148, when the new occupiers gave Jews the option of converting to Islam, death or exile. A similar persecution emulating the Almohad’s “model of tolerance” prompted Maimonides to write his famous Epistle on Forced Conversion to the Jewish community in Yemen. Restoring ‘“Al-Andalus’ – an ageless Model of Tolerance” has been the stated goal of Al-Qaeda. In September 2007 Ayman al-Zawahiri issued an audio tape calling for the reconquest of “Al-Andalus” and more recently called for the “cleansing” of North Africa of Spaniards and the French as preparation for the reoccupation of “Al-Andalus”. An al-Qaeda-linked cyber-jihadist group that targets US companies with hacks and computer worms styles themselves as “The Brigades of Tariq ibn Ziyad”, named after the invader and occupier of Spain…

So what to think of all this?
For more than 700 years the Moors had a civilization going in Spain which was without a doubt more advanced than anything else seen in Europe at the time. More advanced in terms of its science, agriculture, economics and law. Was it also tolerant and benign? Again compared to the norm at that time in Europe, probably yes. Compared to today’s norms, certainly not. Were there pogroms and massacres committed by the Moors (more likely the Almohads) against the Jews? Yes, but they are of rare occurrence in Islamic history. The latter cannot be said of the treatment of Jews and Muslims by Christians in Europe.

My photos of 2012 trip to Andalucia

The Fourth Crusade

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Thu, 12 Apr 2012 10:33:33 +0000

Today April 12th 2012 it is exactly 808 years ago the knights of the Fourth Crusade sacked the city of Constantinople.

The painting on the right is called "Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople" by Eugène Delacroix, 1840.

This is one of those pivotal moments in history. Its importance cannot be easily overestimated, even from a distance of 808 years. What happened?

The aim of the Fourth Crusade was to recapture Jerusalem for Christianity. Boniface of Montferrat the leader of the Crusade, with full papal approval and support, negotiated a shipping contract with the Venetians to transport 33500 crusaders to Egypt for an agreed sum of 85000 silver marks. The Venetians took a full year to build 50 war galleys and 450 transports. Too bad only 12000 crusaders showed up in Venice with 51000 silver marks. The Doge of Venice was not amused. He demanded that the Crusaders invade the rival port of Zara in Croatia as a form of financial compensation. Some of the crusaders refused and returned home. The majority of the army followed their leaders to Zara in an attempt to prevent the crusade's complete failure. A letter from the Pope to the leadership threatening excommunication if the army attacked Christian neighbors was concealed from the army. The Christian city of Zara was sacked by the Christian army of the Fourth Crusade on November 23, 1202. When Pope Innocent III heard of the sack of Zara he sent a letter to the crusaders excommunicating them. Out of fear that this would dissolve the army the leaders of the crusade decided not to inform the army of this. Anyway, a little later, regarding the Crusaders as having been blackmailed by the Venetians, The Pope rescinded the excommunications against all non-Venetians in the expedition. Boniface of Montferrat, meanwhile, met with the Byzantine prince Alexios Angelos, the son of the recently deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II Angelos. Alexios offered to pay the entire debt owed to the Venetians, give 200000 silver marks to the Crusaders, 10000 Byzantine professional troops for the Crusade, the maintenance of 500 knights in the Holy Land, the service of the Byzantine navy to transport the Crusader army to Egypt and the placement of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the authority of the Pope if they would sail to Constantinople (Byzantium) and topple the reigning emperor Alexios III Angelos. It was a tempting offer for an enterprise that was short on funds. Boniface agreed. Most of the rest of the Crusade's leaders eventually accepted the plan as well. Again not all agreed. Those who refused to take part in the scheme to attack Christendom's greatest city left the Crusade and sailed on their own to Syria.

Thus it happened that the great Christian army of the Fourth Crusade lay siege to one of the oldest and most prosperous Christian cities on earth. Starting July 11th 2013 it took the army until April 12th 2014 to the breach the defenses of Constantinople. Too bad the promised riches failed to materialize. Although Alexios tried in desperation to melt down priceless Byzantine icons, he could not keep his part of the bargain. What followed was a sack described by Speros Vryonis in his book 'Byzantium and Europe' as follows: "The Latin soldiery subjected the greatest city in Europe to an indescribable sack. For three days they murdered, raped, looted and destroyed on a scale which even the ancient Vandals and Goths would have found unbelievable. Constantinople had become a veritable museum of ancient and Byzantine art, an emporium of such incredible wealth that the Latins were astounded at the riches they found. Though the Venetians had an appreciation for the art which they discovered (they were themselves semi-Byzantines) and saved much of it, the French and others destroyed indiscriminately, halting to refresh themselves with wine, violation of nuns, and murder of Orthodox clerics. The Crusaders vented their hatred for the Greeks most spectacularly in the desecration of the greatest Church in Christendom. They smashed the silver iconostasis, the icons and the holy books of Hagia Sophia, and seated upon the patriarchal throne a whore who sang coarse songs as they drank wine from the Church's holy vessels. The estrangement of East and West, which had proceeded over the centuries, culminated in the horrible massacre that accompanied the conquest of Constantinople. The Greeks were convinced that even the Turks, had they taken the city, would not have been as cruel as the Latin Christians. The defeat of Constantinople, already in a state of decline, accelerated political degeneration so that the Byzantines eventually became an easy prey to the Turks. The Crusading movement thus resulted, ultimately, in the victory of Islam, a result which was of course the exact opposite of its original intention."

How come two great Christian civilizations turned against each other eventually leading to the rise of Islam in South Eastern Europe? The experiences of the earlier Crusades had thrown into stark relief the vast cultural differences between the two civilizations. The Latins (as the Byzantines called them because of their adherence to the Latin Rite) viewed the Byzantine preference for diplomacy and trade over war, as duplicitous and degenerate, and their policy of tolerance and assimilation towards Muslims as a corrupt betrayal of the faith. For their part, the educated and wealthy Byzantines saw the Latins as lawless, impious, covetous, blood-thirsty, undisciplined and unwashed (literally). However, although maybe a little smelly, in one of the first cavalry skirmishes during the siege of Constantinople just 80 Frankish knights defeated 500 Byzantine horsemen.

Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, Pope John Paul II twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth Crusade. In 2001, he wrote to Christodoulos, Archbishop of Athens, saying, "It is tragic that the assailants, who set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret." In 2004, while Bartholomew I, Patriarch of Constantinople, was visiting the Vatican, John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries, the pain and disgust." This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for the terrible slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade.

Much of the material in this article comes from the Wikipedia entry on the Fourth Crusade. I encourage everyone to read and heed this. Follow this link.

Diederik van Vleuten

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Sat, 25 Feb 2012 08:36:17 +0000

Today we attended an one man show in the theater in Groningen. It is an act not easily classified. Basically he told us about his own family during the 19th and 20th centuries in Indonesia. The effect was a powerful story about the past of the Netherlands as a colonial power and the Second World War in Asia. These are subjects not easily talked about here and his show caused quite a stir. Many now very old people who lived through that and never before shared their experiences, spoke up after seeing this show. Very powerful stuff.

In the fall of 2012 Diederik van Vleuten will start a new show using the same concept. This time about the first world war. I am looking forward to it.

Boniface murdered near Dokkum Frisia

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Sat, 25 Feb 2012 07:05:51 +0000

At school I learned that St. Boniface, apostle of Germans, was murdered near Dokkum in the year 752.
Today Dokkum is a very pleasant town in the north of The Netherlands with a little museum dedicated to Boniface.
This is what I learned there. Boniface was born an Englishman near what is now Exeter in Devon in the year 675. When he was killed on June 5th in 752 he was already an old man with a very impressive clergical and political career. What were his accomplishments? He christianized a huge area of Europe what is now mainly Eastern Germany and founded monasteries and bishop seats all over the place. He was an excellent organizer. The borders of the bishop seats he founded are mostly still in use today. With papal letters in hand he organized the local churches in the tradition of Rome. This made him not very popular among the Christian Frankish and Gallic rulers, who had their own ambitions to extend their territories Eastward and did not need an Englishman to meddle in their affairs in their own backyard. To make matters worse, the local Frankish and Gallic churches had deviated considerably from the doctrines of Rome and Boniface was tireless in his efforts to point this out to the local nobility. In short the local christian rulers had plenty of reasons for wanting to get rid of Boniface. So did these Frankish rulers have a hand in organizing the murder of Boniface by the heathen Frisians near Dokkum? We will never know for sure.

The Frisians were punished severely for their horrible crime and most men in Dokkum were butchered and the women were taken back home as trophy. The rest were forcibly Christianized. This did not last very long. In the year 800 the Frisians collectively reverted to paganism and only some time after that the Frankish rulers subdued and converted the proud Frisians again. This time it did last.

Boniface's many travels throughout Europe.

Agriculture museum in Eernewoude

nospam@example.com (Jos van der Woude) — Sat, 25 Feb 2012 06:52:20 +0000

Today we went to the agriculture museum in Eernewoude, Friesland. The reason was that we wanted to see one of the historic shedders made by my father's company in the 50's and 60's. Alas it was not on display. We did see an early example of a Combine made out of timber! The form and shape of it looks familiar, I just had never seen one made out of wood.